¹Intentionally helping people violate copyright law is illegal, even if one is not personally violating copyright law oneself. ²Since the 1990s, people have continued to download music without paying for it, even though public awareness programs portray it as illegal. ³Aided by free services like kazaa.com and grokster.com, they relied on anonymity to break copyright law.  ⁴The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), however, sued downloaders and eventually won some groundbreaking legal victories against file-sharing services. ⁵In 2003, it sued a large number of music downloaders across the United States. ⁶On average, each defendant had shared at least 1,000 songs each.

            ⁷“A lot of people think they can get away with what they are doing because peer-to-peer file sharing allows them to hide behind made-up screen names,” the president of the RIAA told the New York Times. ⁸“But they are not anonymous. The law is very clear.  What they are doing is stealing.” ⁹Copyright laws allowed the industry to seek $750 to $150,000 for each separate violation.
            ¹⁰The lawsuits included copies of screen shots of many users’ entire online music-sharing accounts, showing the names of each song and how many times the user downloaded music. ¹¹RIAA offered not to pursue the individual lawsuits for people who were willing to sign a notarized statement saying they would stop sharing music files and delete the files they now had. ¹²A later court ruling stopped the prosecution of people who downloaded free music, but the case headed to the U.S. Supreme Court. 
            ¹³In June 2005, the Supreme Court announced a decision that eventually shut down many free-music software providers. ¹⁴In MGM Studios versus Grokster, the court said the makers of Grokster, which allowed Internet users to browse freely and copy songs from each other, could be sued for their role in helping people violate recording industry copyright protections.  ¹⁵This decision was one of special importance because it set the standard for lawsuits that would follow. ¹⁶It firmly defines file-sharing services as illegal when they allow users to share copyrighted material. ¹⁷This Supreme Court decision gave the recording companies the legal ammunition they needed to try to shut down file-swapping services. As a result, the file-sharing services indeed began to shut down.

—From BIAGI. Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media 8e (p. 98). Copyright © 2007 Cengage Learning

¹Today, the popular urban loft-style apartment is a pricey and strikingly fashionable place for the wealthy single person. ²But this new prefab loft style that’s springing up in downtown developments across the nation is no longer built or purchased in the same spirit as the traditional loft from which it springs.   
³The original communities of loft apartments began in economically depressed, industrial parts of cities.  ⁴These somewhat dangerous neighborhoods, with their low-cost housing, were magnets for artists and crime alike. ⁵Manhattan’s Meatpacking District serves as an excellent example of this.  ⁶At the beginning of the 20^th century its streets were lined with the 150 slaughterhouses and meat packing plants  ⁷By the 1980s it had become a slum for drug dealing, prostitution, and transsexuals—but also a hotbed for artists and writers who could only afford to live in cheap, industrial, and drafty upstairs apartments. 
⁸It is in these somewhat unromantic, gutted shells that the urban loft style began.  ⁹The loft was the artist’s aerie and studio, overlooking the landscape of a dead industrial complex. ¹⁰A loft apartment thus consists of a large space, with a somewhat bare-bones, attic-space appeal. ¹¹One can imagine what would happen when a gifted artist moves into a warehouse and, despite the ugliness of his new home, uses his gifted eye to transform his living space. ¹²This is the humble history of the loft apartment, which supplies the romance for a new, postmodern architectural style. ¹³The poor artists of the present deserve more attention because the way they live today defines how the wealthy will live in the future.   
¹⁴Today, the original loft style is imitated for its high mark-up value.  Its style makes it easy to sell at a high price, even though the structure is not always that expensive to build. ¹⁵Typically, a loft apartment is spacious, with exposed beams, bricks and cement, free-hanging air conditioning ducts, and partitions instead of walls (indeed, if there are even walls at all), all combined with the tasteful, state-of-the-art kitchen fixtures, murals, and large old-fashioned, factory-style, jalousie windows. ¹⁶And this new, rugged style manages to sell for a lot of money. ¹⁷Today’s loft apartments run from $300,000 to $4,000,000, and they overlook the fashionable, busy nightlife of a downtown that’s buzzing with shopping and culture—a far cry from the poor, crime-infested environments of the past.

¹By the 1950s, behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory were the most influential schools of thought in psychology. ²However, many psychologists found these two schools unappealing, mainly because both are “dehumanizing.” ³Psychoanalytic theory assumes that behavior is dominated by primitive, sexual urges. ⁴Behaviorism assumes that the study of animal behavior is enough to understand humans. ⁵Both theories suggested that people are not masters of their own destinies, but that disguised biological processes and animalistic qualities control them. ⁶Above all, both schools of thought failed to recognize the unique qualities of human behavior. 

⁷Beginning in the 1950s, the diverse opposition to behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory blended into a new school of thought called humanism. ⁸In psychology, humanism focuses on the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth. ⁹It breathes soul back into psychology.

¹⁰People are not pawns of their animal nature or of their environmental circumstances. ¹¹Furthermore, people are fundamentally different from other animals.  ¹²In fact, research on animals has little relevance to the understanding of human behavior.  ¹³The most famous contributors to the humanistic movement have been Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). ¹⁴Rogers, in 1970, argued that human behavior is governed mainly by each individual’s sense of self, or “self-concept”—which animals lack. ¹⁵Both he and Maslow maintained that, to fully understand people’s behavior, psychologists must recognize the fundamental human need for personal growth.  ¹⁶They argued that people have a basic drive to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potentials. ¹⁷In fact, the humanists claimed that many mental disturbances result from thwarting these uniquely human needs. ¹⁸To date, the humanists’ greatest contribution to psychology has been its new forms of treatment. ¹⁹Examples are Gestalt therapy, encounter groups, art therapy, and sensitivity training. 
²⁰Humanistic psychologists support the idea that individuals are unique, so it should come as no surprise that humanists have many different, individual theories about what it means to be human. ²¹Arguments over these different beliefs and opinions have reduced the influence of humanism in recent decades. ²²Despite this, humanism maintains a position ultimately supportive of humans as more than animals, accepting the reality of experiences that go beyond the measurable world. 
²³Humanism is, therefore, not purely scientific. ²⁴It accepts that other disciplines, such as art and philosophy, also have something to say about human behavior. ²⁵Most interestingly, it does not turn a blind eye to deep concepts like imagination, myth, soul, and spiritual dimensions of experience. ²⁶Behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory, on the other hand, are the tools that are easily used by the interests of money-hungry corporations. ²⁷The behaviorist sees humans as little more than bestial, so it lends itself easily to the exploitation of people as little more than cattle. ²⁸An increasing awareness of these abuses suggests that we are, today, at the beginning of a rebirth in humanistic values. 

¹Instead of dying after the spread of television, radio managed to thrive by adapting to an audience that enjoyed the portability and immediacy that radio offers. ²Nothing can beat radio for quick news bulletins or the latest hits. ³Aside from the benefits to listeners, radio especially provides benefits to advertisers. ⁴When you listen to it in your car or through earphones while jogging, radio doesn’t have to compete with any other medium for your attention. ⁵This often holds true whether you are listening to your favorite style of music or the advertisements that get slipped in along with it. ⁶Another advantage is that radio targets an audience much better than television because the radio station you prefer defines the kind of products you like. ⁷Advertisers thrive on this exclusive access to their audience. ⁸The advertising potential for an intimate medium like radio, therefore, is now attracting entrepreneurs who have never owned a station before. ⁹Furthermore, the latest FCC deregulations now make radio available, and suddenly appealing, to large corporations who want to expand their holdings. ¹⁰It’s no wonder that radio station owners focus so heavily on their format in an attempt to deliver just the right audience to their sponsors. 

¹Sigmund Freud’s model of psychoanalysis is not the only school of thought that has come and gone in psychology. ²Another approach, stucturalism, emerged in the early 1900s through the leadership of Edward Titchener, an Englishman who taught for decades at Cornell University. ³Structuralism was a psychological school of thought based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related to one another. ⁴Just as physicists were studying how matter is made up of basic particles, the structuralists wanted to identify and examine the fundamental components of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings, and images. ⁵Although the structuralists explored many questions, most of their work concerned consciousness as it relates to sensation and perception. ⁶To examine the contents of consciousness, the structuralists depended on the method of introspection, or careful, systematic self-observation. ⁷As practiced by the structuralists, introspection first required training to make the subject—the person being studied—more objective and more aware. ⁸Once trained, subjects were then typically exposed to auditory tones, optical illusions, and visual stimuli under carefully controlled and systematic conditions, and they were asked to analyze what they experienced.  

¹Since 1970, the average age of a woman at her first marriage has increased about three years. ²Also, women have entered the workplace in increasing numbers, causing some to delay having children until their financial situation improves. ³Other working women have decided not to have any children at all. ⁴Naturally with these developments, overall birthrates have declined. ⁵The birthrate in women between the ages of 15 and 44 has decreased by about 20 percent. ⁶The peak childrearing years in 1970 were between 20 and 24 years of age. ⁷In 1991, they were between 25 and 29. ⁸In the last few decades, clearly, the entry of women into the workforce has resulted in a reduction in the rate of population growth. 

      —From PARKS. A Mathematical View of Our World 1e (p. 536). Copyright © 2007 Cengage Learning

¹Although witchcraft and sorcery are usually associated with small communities in the non-Western world, they are also found in highly industrialized parts of the world such as the United States, Canada, and Western Europe. ²Modern-day witches, who use their powers for good purposes, call their belief system Wicca, a term meaning “witch,” derived from Old English. ³Wicca tends to be non-dogmatic, non-hierarchical, and non-proselytizing (that is, it does not try to convert people to its faith). ⁴It has a number of gentle rituals that seem to appeal especially to women, and is based on the basic philosophy of “Do what you will, but harm none.”
⁵Practiced largely in urban areas, witchcraft, like the mainstream religions, involves worship as a central part of its activities. ⁶Although it is possible for both men and women to practice witchcraft, in North American cities most practitioners are women.  ⁷Wicca has an unmistakably feminine character. ⁸Local organizations of witches, called covens, are often presided over by high priestesses, symbolic representations of the mother goddess. ⁹Some covens consider themselves fertility cults, and some actually involve sexual intercourse as part of their initiation, although this is relatively rare.  ¹⁰Although the sexual aspects of Wicca, as usual, have attracted a good deal of interest in the news media, Wiccans mostly emphasize life-giving powers of the Earth goddess, not sexuality. 
¹¹Wicca may involve the practice of magic, which is defined as bringing about changes by invoking one’s own divine powers. ¹²It is important to note that the magical powers of Wiccans are not supernatural, but natural. ¹³Wiccans use a variety of methods, such as visualization, incantations, chants, and meditation to focus their inner powers to bring about a desired change. ¹⁴Practitioners of modern witchcraft claim that their early pre-Christian ancestors possessed these natural magical powers, but they were subsequently lost when Wicca was forced to go underground by the Roman Catholic Church. ¹⁵As a neo-pagan movement, modern-day Wicca views itself as a means of rediscovering these lost magical powers. 
¹⁶Witchcraft appears to be one of the fastest-growing religions in the United States, but there are no reliable estimates on how many practitioners exist. ¹⁷The growth of the modern Wicca has coincided with the rise of feminism, ecology movements, and movements seeking freedom from authority. ¹⁸In late 2004, the Yahoo search engine located more than 1,280,000 separate Wiccan Web sites. ¹⁹The Internet bookseller Amazon.com was selling 1,251 different books on the Wiccan movement and more than 21,000 titles on the general topic of witchcraft.